PENYIMPANGAN ENRON – ANDERSEN

Enron Corporate didirikan pada tahun 1985 yang berbasis di Houston, Texas, Amerika Serikat. Enron merupakan perusahaan yang didirikan dari hasil merger antara perusahaan Houston Natural Gas (HNG) dan InterNorth sebuah perusahaan pemipaan di Nebraska. Enron menjadi pemimpin pasar atas terobosannya menciptakan transaksi derivatife dalam perdagangan energi, yang diintroduksi oleh Jeffrey Skilling, di mana Enron membeli gas dari jaringan pemasok dan menjualnya kepada jaringan konsumen, menjaminkan baik pasokan maupun harga, kemudian membebankan biaya atas transaksi dengan memperhitungkan resiko-resiko penjaminan itu. Pada tahun 2000, transaksi derivatif menyumbang hingga 80% bagi keuntungan perusahaan. Dengan asset US$62,8 miliar, kasus Enron menjadi kebangkrutan terbesar dalam sejarah Amerika setelah peristiwa Texaco dengan asset US$35,9 miliar pada tahun 1987.

Reputasi Enron sungguh mentereng pada tahun-tahun mendekati kebangkrutannya. Perusahaan yang menggurita di bidang listrik, air, gas, kertas, dan komunikasi ini di tahun 2001, 4 bulan sebelum kebangkrutannya, meraup keuntungan bersih US$101 miliar.  Bahkan, Majalah Fortune pun mengganjarnya dengan memberikan award “Perusahaan Paling Inovatif”. Sukses Enron bertambah lengkap manakala menilik awal mula berdirinya Enron yang hanya dibangun oleh anak petani miskin bernama Kenneth Lay, yang pada awal mulanya hanyalah perusahaan kampungan menjadi monopolis gas alam dan listrik dalam waktu kurang dari dua puluh tahun.

Menjelang kebangkrutannya karena pegawai-pegawainya ini yakin akan performa Enron maka mereka mengalihkan tabungan pensiun mereka untuk membeli saham Enron. Sebuah keputusan yang kelak mereka sesali karena belakangan diketahui Enron mengalami kebangkrutan dan mengakibatkan saham Enron tak lebih berharga dari sebatang coklat murah. Punahnya Enron meninggalkan kerugian miliaran dolar bagi investor. Sertifikat saham mereka tak lagi punya nilai, mungkin hanya layak dipajang dalam pigura untuk mengenang salah satu skandal keuangan terbesar di awal abad ini.

Mereka tertipu karena terbuai oleh cantiknya laporan Keuangan Enron saat itu.  Terbuai? Tentu saja karena saat itu yang mengaudit laporan keuangan Enron adalah salah satu The Big Five Kantor Akuntan Publik di Amerika. Kantor Akuntan Publik itu bernama Arthur Andersen.

Tidak ada yang curiga bahwa mereka bersekongkol untuk mempercantik laporan keuangan, dalam dunia akuntansi dikenal window dressing yaitu memanipulasi angka-angka laporan keuangan agar kinerjanya tampak kinclong secara tidak sah. Mereka menyembunyikan utang pada pihak ketiga sebanyak US$3,9 miliar. Bagi perusahaan publik, dimana setiap pemegang saham punya hak mengetahui segala aktivitas perusahaan yang memiliki risiko, hal ini tentulah sebuah kejahatan.

Skandal Enron tak bisa dipungkiri merupakan kejahatan ekonomi multidimensi, segelintir penguasa informasi telah menipu banyak pihak yang sangat awam tentang seluk-beluk transaksi keuangan perusahaan. Mereka terdiri dari para CEO, akuntan, auditor, pengacara, banker, dan analis keuangan yang telah mengkhianati tugas mulianya sebagai penjaga kepentingan public yang tak berdosa.

Meskipun bangkrutnya sebuah usaha menjadi tanggung jawab banyak pihak, dalam kedudukannya sebagai auditor, tanggung jawab Arthur Andersen dalam kasus Enron sangatlah besar. Berbeda dengan profesi lainnya, auditor independen bertanggung jawab memberikan assurance services. Sementara manajemen, dibantu pengacara, penasihat keuangan, dan konsultan, menyajiakn informasi keuangan, akuntan public bertugas menilai apakah informasi keuangan itu dapat dipercaya atau tidak. Laku tidaknya informasi tentang kinerja suatu perusahaan sangat bergantung pada hasil penilaian akuntan public itu. Kata “publik” yang menyertai akuntan menunjukkan bahwa otoritasnya diberikan oleh publik dank arena itu tanggung jawabnya pun kepada publik (guarding publik interest). Kalau saja auditor Enron bekerja dengan penuh kehati-hatian (dual professional care), niscaya manipulasi yang dilakukan manajemen dapat dibongkar sejak dulu dan kerugian yang lebih besar dapat dicegah lebih dini. Buktinya, Watskin dengan mudah dapat menemukan manipulasi itu.

Sebaliknya, hilangnya obyektivitas dan independensi dapat membuat penglihatan auditor menjadi kabur. Penyimpangan (irregularities) dan kecurangan (fraud) akan dianggap sebagai kelaziman. Kegagalan untuk bersikap obyektif dan independensi sama artinya dengan hilangnya eksistensi profesi. Membenarkan, bahkan menutupi, perilaku manajemen yang manipulative jelas-jelas merupakan pengkhiantan terhadap tugas “suci” profesi akuntan publik. Karena itu, sangat wajar jika, dalam kasus Enron, auditor paling dipersalahkan karena telah gagal melindungi kepentingan publik –sang pemberi otoritas.

Dari kasus ini banyak terjadi perilaku tidak etis. Perilaku tidak etis paling mengemuka disini adalah adanya manipulasi laporan keuangan untuk menunjukkan seolah-olah kinerja perusahaan baik. Andersen telah menciderai kepercayaan dari pihak stock holder untuk memberikan suatu informasi yang adil mengenai pertanggungjawaban dari pihak agen dalam mengemban amanah. Hal tersebut akan dapat dihindari melalui peningkatan moral, akhlak, etika, perilaku, dsb. Karena tindakan yang bermoral akan memberikan implikasi terhadap kepercayaan publik.

Dalam kasus Andersen diketahui terjadinya perilaku moral hazard diantaranya manipulasi laporan keuangan dengan mencatat keuntungan padahal perusahaan mengalami kerugian. Manipulasi keuntungan disebabkan keinginan perusahaan agar saham tetap diminati investor. Ini merupakan salah satu contoh kasus pelanggaran etika profesi Auditor yang terjadi di Amerika Serikat, sebuah Negara yang memiliki perangkat undang-undang bisnis dan pasar modal yang lebih lengkap. Hal ini terjadi akibat keegoisan satu pihak terhadap pihak lain. Pihak-pihak yang selama ini diuntungkan atas penipuan laporan keuangan terhadap pihak yang telah tertipu. Hal ini buah dari ketidak jujuran, kebohongan atau dari praktik bisnis yang tidak etis yang berakibat hutang dan sebuah kehancuran yang menyisakan penderitaan bagi banyak pihak. Yang harus menjadi sebuah pelajaran bahwa sesungguhnya suatu praktik atau perilaku yang dilandasi dengan ketidakbaikan maka akhirnya akan menuai ketidakbaikan pula termasuk kerugian bagi banyak pihak.

Sumber:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enron

http://uwiiii.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/kasus-enron-dan-kap-arthur-andersen/

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The Reading Comprehension

The Reading Comprehension

The Reading Comprehension section of the TOEFL test consists of five reading passages, each followed by a number of reading comprehension and vocabulary questions. Topics of the reading passages are varied, but they are often informational subjects that might be studied in an American university: American history, literature, art, architecture, geology, geography, and astronomy, for example.

Time is definitely a factor in the Reading Comprehension section. Many students who take the TOEFL test note that they are unable to finish all the questions in this section. Therefore, you need to make the most efficient use of your time in this section to get the highest score. The following method is the best way of attacking a reading passage to get the most questions correct in a limited amount of time. In the new version of the TOEFL, the amount of about 50 items that include vocabulary, and reding comprehension.  

1.    Reading Comprehension

This section usually consists of five or six aas script (reading) short, each of which is followed by some questions, and peranyaan these questions must be answered in accordance with the information expressed or implied in the text.

2.    Vocabulary

This section consists of loose sentences are some of the words or he underlined.

STRATEGIES FOR THE READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1.    Skim the reading passage to determine the main idea and the overall organization of ideas in the passage. You do not need to understand every detail in a passage to answer the questions correctly. It is therefore a waste of time to read the passage with the intent of understanding every single detail before you try to answer the questions.

2.    Look ahead at the questions to determine what types of questions you must answer.

Each type of question is answered in a different way.

3.    Find the section of the passage that deals with each question.

The question type tells you exactly where to look in the passage to find correct answers.

a.      For main idea questions, look at the first line of each paragraph.

b.      For directly and indirectly answered detail questions, choose a key word in the question, and skim for that key word (or a related idea) in order in the passage.

c.       For vocabulary questions, the question will tell you where the word is located in the passage.

d.      For where questions, the answers are found anywhere in the passage.

4.    Read the part of the passage that contains the answer carefully.

The answer will probably be in the same sentence (or one sentence before or after) the key word or idea.

5.    Choose the best answer to each question from the four answer choices listed in your test book.

You can choose the best answer according to what is given in the appropriate section of the passage, eliminate definitely wrong answers, and mark your best guess on the answer sheet.

A.       Sentence Relationship Questions

Two sentences are followed by a question or statement. Read the sentences, then choose the best answer to the question or the best completion of the statement.

1.    Today’s teenagers spend millions of dollars on clothing, cosmetics and other types of products. One reason is that they have grown up in a time of almost constant prosperity.

Which answer best describes the relationship between these two statements?

1. The second statement contrasts with the first.
2. Both statements are examples of the same concept.
3. The second statement is an example of the first.
4. The second statement is a cause of the first.

2.    To perform CPR correctly, open the victim’s mouth and free the throat of any obstructions. Begin artificial breathing by blowing down the victim’s cleared throat while keeping the nostrils closed with your fingers.

What is the relationship between these two statements?

1. The second statement is an example of the first.
2. The second statement is in contrast with the first.
3. The second statement describes what happens after the first.
4. The second statement restates the first.

3.    There are rules that drivers and passengers should follow to stay safe when in moving vehicles. These rules include driving within the speed limit and wearing seatbelts.

What is the relationship between these two statements?

1. The second statement provides examples of the first.
2. The second statement restates the first.
3. The second statement describes an effect of the first.
4. The second statement makes a comparison to the first.

4.     The Midwest is experiencing its worst drought in fifteen years. Corn and soybean prices are expected to be very high this year.

What does the second sentence do?

1. It restates the idea found in the first.
2. It states an effect.
3. It gives an example.
4. It analyzes the statement made in the first.

5.    The number of young, unmarried people has grown dramatically in the last decade. Business people, politicians, and advertisers now target the incomes and interests of this population.

What is the relationship between these two ideas?

1. The first statement is the cause of the second.
2. The first statement contradicts the second.
3. The second statement defines the first.
4. The second statement illustrates the first.

B.       Narrative Questions

Read the statement or passage and then choose the best answer to the question. Answer the question on the basis of what is stated or implied in the statement or passage.

6.    Divorce or the death of a parent is bound to unsettle children who may be involved. Daily routines like eating meals together or doing homework may disappear at a time when children need structure the most. Many children, testing the stability or security of their new family situation, may become defiant or uncharacteristically hostile.

According to this passage, divorce or the death of a parent:

1. is a direct cause of hostility in children.
2. may have unintended effects on children’s behavior.
3. can be blamed for many missed homework assignments.
4. always serve to split families apart.

7.    After seven years of construction, the new East Wing of the National Gallery in Washington, D.C., was finally opened in the public in 1978. Designed by I.M. Pei, the East Wing is probably the most expensive public building ever erected in the United States. Most of the $95 million that went into constructing it was donated by Paul Mellon and the Mellon Foundation. Interestingly enough, Paul’s father, Andrew Mellon, was the person who donated funds in the 1930’s to build what is now the main building of the National Gallery.

The main purpose of the passage is to:

1. relate facts about the East Wing.
2. describe how the East Wing was built.
3. show why the East Wing is expensive.
4. question the need for a public building like the East Wing.

8.     Jazz is a peculiarly American contribution to Western culture. It was born out of the unique experience of American Blacks. Although its history is not entirely clear, jazz obviously has roots in the rhythm patterns and melodic lines of Africa, the tradition of Christian spirituals as sung by slave communities, the music of the blues as developed in the Deep South, and ragtime.

According to this passage, one can conclude that:

1. jazz is the sole Black contribution to Western culture.
2. there is some difficulty tracing the origin of jazz.
3. jazz is most closely related to spiritual music.
4. jazz is not a complex musical form.

9.    There are two types of pottery that I do. There is production pottery—mugs, tableware—the kinds of things that sell easily. These pay for my time to do the other work, which is more creative and satisfies my needs as an artist.

The author of the passage implies that:

1. artists have a tendency to waste valuable time.
2. creativity and mass production are incompatible.
3. most people do not appreciate good art.
4. pottery is not produced by creative artists.

10.          Some actors and rock stars are paid almost 100 times as much per year as school teachers. Not to downgrade the role of entertainment in our lives, but these people are not the valuable social resource that educators are. As another example, professional athletes earn vastly more than the nation’s firefighters. Again, there is little doubt that the lower paid group contributes a more vital function to communities. Finally, dress designers, who can make up to $50,000 for a gown, far out-earn police officers, whose very presence makes our cities and towns livable.

Based on this passage, the earning power in our society:

1. is subject to staggering inflation.
2. does not relate to one’s usefulness in society.
3. is highest among those whose achievements are the greatest.
4. should be highest among actors and rock.